Samenessaraon02
Ieneralprinciplebyhandlingaprihegeneralpribedisedbyseparatingitfromthespestanwhichitisembedded。Buthowsuchaseparatihtabout?ThisisactuallytheclassiofgeneralqualitiesandspestaheformerarewhatdwellinPlato'sworldofpureideas，whereasthelatterareulatesouretellthetart?Forexample，howwedistinguish“threeness”fromthreeapples，theideaofserendipityfromaserendipitousevent，idHolyoak's（1980）casetheideaofsimultaneouslygpathsfratumoriomachbyradiation?
AsIhaveargued，iotheGreeal。（1993）andLobatoa（2002）studies，distorseparationhardlyeaboutbyfooanwhieralandthespecifipletelyiheformerimplicit，thelatterexplicit。Iftherearetwosuffitlydifferentihesamepriison（theprinciple）maypossiblybediswhatisdiffereahemoredifferentcasesavailabletreaterthelikelihoodthattheprinciplewillbedisedastheprimary，oronly，thingontoall，becauseofthelikelihoutwhatisdifferent（Reeves＆Weisberg，1994）。Thelikelihoodofdistinguishingtheprisspestantiationalsobeenhancedbydrawinglearners'attentiontotheoweenthedifferentinstances。
Themainpointisthatieneralpriobeusedinthesepiricallyatleasttlesareioransfer-learhinginSituationA（disgageneralprindusingitinSituationB—islogitehetrasquotedbyLave（1988）demohefirstinstanwhiersdisapriuallyotheyaredealingwithSituatiohanSituationA。FromLave'spoihisbeseenasanexampleoflostruofthesolutiohesolutioexistpriortotheproblembeihepointofviewofmyownlihisisaheyofvariation。Withoutdifferentileasttwo）thelearuobeeawareofthegeneralpri，inafollow-upidHolyoak（1983）showedthatalthoughlearnershadlittlesuabstrag（eilespestaheyfrequentlymaodosowhehtwodifferentinstanecouldsay，ofcourse，thatseveralexamplesmakeitpossiblefortheleareneralpriheexamplesallembodythesamegeneralprirue，providedtheexamplesaredifferent。Usingthesameexampletwiceorseveraltimesinsteadwouldnotdo。
&ionforFutureLearning
Asstated，thisartiteogethedoeness，whichistheideathatrofitiionfromwhattheyhavelearnedinaion，theydosobecausetheymakeuseofthesamecapabilityiothesamefeaturesofthetwosituations。Iamgoistudyasthebasisformyseent。Thisstudywasbecauseitdiffersinimportasfromthestudiesdiscussedsofar。Thestudyiiooasetofstudiesorieoreparationforfuturelearning（e。g。，Bransford＆Schwartz，1999;Schwartz＆Bransford，1988）。Iudiestheobjectofresearchistheeffectiiiuatihthat，oinatraion。TransferhasalsopreviouslybeeermsoftheeffectsiiiioionforfuturelearningstudieshaveuhatareessentialtothepointI>
&ofdepartureiudiesisthestandardtransferparadigmaimedatparirawodifferentsf。Inatraditionaltransferapproaparablegroupsofstudentstrytolearnwhatisnomihiwodifferents，aestedforwhattheyhavelearhesameh。Totheextentthattherearediffereheyareihetwodifferentsftothesameforappraisal。
Now，itmightbethecasethatnodifferencesarefouwos。Oionsmight，however，bebetteratpreparingthelearnersforfutureleardoesnotyieldsuperioratdireastandardtraudy。Ioihis，BransfordandSchwartz（1999）suggestedtheuseofwhatSdMarting（2004）called“thedoubletraudentswereassigwoinstrualtreatments（SituationsA1andA2）。Halfofthestudentsfrombothtreatmentsweregiveoaresource（SituationB），suchasalepleworked-outproblem，followedbyarequesttosolveatransferproblem（Situatioherhalffrombothtreatmeosolvethetransferproblem（Situatiohoutaccesstresource。Theresearcherscalledthisadoubletransferparadigmbecausestuderansferin”whattheyhadlearheinstrualtreatmenttolearnfromtheresourdtheyra”whattheyhadlearheresourcetosolvethetargettransferproblem。Totheextentthattherewerediffereheywerebetweewos（SituationsA1andA2）asfarastheirdirecteffethetraask（SituationdtheireffelearninginSituationBareed。Thedifferehushaveiwokindsoftrafolloleofhowsuchadesignhasbeenusediudy。
SdMartin（2004）
Inthisstudy，theobject（whatwastobelearned）aring（high）sdifferentsdifferentdistributioioermsettaskgiverus。Thefollowingtaskwasutilized:“whichoftwostudents，whowereibiologydtookdifferes，didbetteroivetest?”Susareoistigstandardizedscores（i。e。，bydividingthediffereualsdthemeaributionthatthesgstobythestaionforthesamedistributirasptheratiohistransformatiohgradestudentspartigiudyhadtoicalrespewhichdistributionsmightdifferfromeaelytraltendendvariability。［TherearesimilaritieswiththeinJudd's（1908）experiment，whohadtoheaiohofwaterastwocriticaldifferewotaskstheyweredealingwith。］
Afterhavihstatisticsfor2weeks（allihestudeedsarios，suchasthefollowing:“whobroketheworldrecordbythemostimpressiveamount—JohninhighjumporMikeihrow?”Iheinstrualtreatments（Situatioswereaskedtoiheirownwayofsolvingtheproblemgivenrawdataforthedistributioresultsduriheotherinstrualtreatment（Situatioswereshohicalmethodfthescoresbyusinghistogramsahodfthestandardizedscoressubsequepragthismethoduhesupervisioeacher。Halfroupsalsoreceivedalearwoworked-outexamples（SituationB）。Thelearningresourteoprovidethestudentswithatwiththetargettransferproblem。Thestudeedhowtoputeaandardizedsc。，“IsBettybetteratassistsorsteals?”）。Finally，allofthestudehetargettransferproblem，oparestwodifferentbiologytests（Situationthisotalltherarovided，butonlythemeansandstaiosalongwithrawscoresforthetwostudentstopare。
Therewasnosignifitdifferewoinstrualtreatmentsforthestudentswhodidhelearningresource。However，theadditionalpoheworked-outexamplesinSituatiorikingdiffererohe“iasolutiroup（SituationA1）andlittleorfroupthatlyshohicalsolution（SituationA2）。
&showsthatalthoughthestudents'attempttoiasolutioproblem（SituationA1）didnothaveanyadvantagefthetargetproblem（Situationparedtotellisawayofsolvingit（Situatiohadadefiagewhetosolvethetargetproblem（SituationB）。Sothedifferehetransferproblemwashefirstpartoftheexperimeio）nortothesedpart（exposuretresource）。Theeffectwasduetotherelatiohefirstas。Theeffectofthefirstpartwasthusto。IfwedehreepartsA（bygSituationsA1andA2iher），B，andcludethatialeffeodiffereofBoified。Theeffetionwhatothertasksthelearer。Sotheeffectofataskoasklybedeterminedspecifithetextofagiveasks。InacewithLave's（1988）argumentforgsetsofsituations，insteadofonlytwosituationsatatime，gthesetmayimplythattheeffectofagiventaskoaskwillgeaswell。
ButwhatistheherelatiouationsAahestudeiongroupcameupwiththeicalsolutionoftheproblem（standardizedscores），whereasstudeell-and-praditiongroupwereshowhi。Yet，thereositiveeffectofA1andBonparedtotheeffectofA2andBonimportaheiionapproachwastheusecases。Asmehestudentsweresupposedtoparerawsddistributionstowhichthed。Bydoistriedtodetermiributionsdifferedfromeachother，aheicaldifferehem，eveniftheyotcapturethosefeaturesaioherex-pliteiguage。Ifthediffererovidedthestudentswithonekindoftrast，juxtaposingtheirownvagueideasabouttraltendendvariabilitywiththestandardstatisticalversionsofthesamephenomehemwitharast。
Ashasbeehmahepreparationforfuturelearningparadigm，SdMartin（2004）madeuseofdiffererasts）oweeioing（SituationA1）aold（SituationB），ontheonehand，andwithinA1（usinggiiher。Byengdiffereweeheleariceddifferewerecriticalfuishihem。
Thislineleadstothethatwhatwaslearhiscasewastheiivitytoperceivesituatioainways。Thatis，studentsdevelopedacapabilitytodisaspectsofthesituationascriticalorrelevantaosideratioime。Additioiohoseaspectsasrelevant。Thisimpliesthattheactsofdist（thatwhichislearned）andwhatisdisthesituatiouresofthesituationtowardwhichtheactsaredirected）aree。
&disethingbeingdisorythingbedisedwithoutanactofdist。Agly，learningabouttraltendencyorvariability，foristtodistraltendendvariabilityiributioersiure。
WhyUandiheoryisNecessaryfortheUandingofAheory
Iguethatitisactuallyimpossibletograspanythingerieerion。Itis，forinstance，diffipossible，touahouthavingeaalterhesamephenomenon。Howeotherwisedistihetheoryandthephethismeaimethatitisimpossibletouhefirsttheoryofapheweenter。Argumentsfhistoryofsceaspartofthescecurriculumareihisclaim:thus，bytrast（andparadoxiany），learningabouttheAristotelianparadigmofforrelationshipfortifiesuandingofitsoniaheiiohelpsstudentstouaoniangravitation，theideaofabsolutespace-timerevealsthemeaniivisti，thegeotricworldsystemfacilitatesuandingoftheheliotricmodel。。。（Tseitlin＆Galili，2004）
Aristotleaon
&usexamihefirstoftheseexamples。Agtoon'sfirstlawofmotion，abodyremaioruestomovewiththesamevelolessaforceait。ThisbeillustratedbyaspatheearthtoVenuswithallofitsechedoff。Ifthiswereallwefoewton'slawwouldnotevenseemalaw，butratherastraightforirieralization，muchliketheobservationthatthingsfallwhehem。Ioperceivethesigon'sformulatioepoutsideit。Infagatenihinsteadoflookingatensinspacewoulddo。Ifochofftheewhiletravelingat50kmhraches，shewillheotuetotravelat50kmhr。Itslowsdownandsoooahalt。Asnoforceappearstoathecar，wemaycludethatbewrong。Buttheremindusthatairresistahatathegforwardwiththeechedoff，andanotherisfritheaxleaistheseforcesthatmakethecarstop。Iftherewereanofri，thecarwoulduetomoveforwardat50kmhr。Thereisalwaysairresistahereisalwaysfritheelive。Byjuxtaposion'sfirstlawwithoureverydayexperiencludethatfarfrommakirivialobservatioonsawandformulatedapriotbeseealloh。OureverydayexperienceismoreiheAristoteliaiomakesomethingmoveweneedaforow，thisprincipleprobablyseemsstraightforwardtomostofus，yetittradiewtonianformulation。Howisthis?WhatAristotlesaysisthatifabodyisatrest，ittakesaforakeitmove。Thisistrue。Buttheprincipleiseneralizedifwebelievethatifsomethingismovibeaforcethatkeepsitmoving。
Thediffereleahattheformertriestoexplainthedifferea，whereasthelattertriestoexplaindifferey，whererestbeseenasaspecialcaseofzerovelogeiyiscalledac（orde）。veloplebetweea，requiresaforentwithtvelogrest）doesnotitoon。Weseethedif-fereleaermsoftwodifferentwaysofmakingdistins。Theformermakesadistiweea，whereasthelattermakesadistiweentvelodgvelodrawtwos（atleast）fromthis。First，theonianwayofmakingdistiweenbodiesiismorepowerfulthaelianway（agtothestudyofphysid，theonianwayofmakiionbeesvisiblewhenitisjuxtaposedwiththeAristotelian。
Thisistheteowhyuaheoryisnecessaryfortheuandingofadoesitreallyworklikethisinpractice?GaliliandHazan（2000）providedempiricethatitdoesiheyparedtheuandingofopticsbystudentsengagedialyear-longhistoricallyorientedphysicscourse（thetargetgroup）withthatbystudentsatedinaparablealphysiparisongroup）。Maificideasriatedbyvirtuallyallofthestudegroup。Bywayoftrast，thestudentsintheparisongroupshowedverylittleuanding。Themainmeismbehindthisdifferenatwasthefrequerastsbetweeideasofthesamethingialtreatment。Forexample，intheparisongroup，theviewoflightrayswasreifiedas“whatlightprises”。Intrast，igroup，lightrayswereceivedasanauxiliarytoolinmodernsce，asaresultgontologicalclaimsofhistoricalmodels。
Myiionisthusthattheimportantfunoftheintroduofalterions;in;orofthestudents'ownnaiveviews，judgedtbytsce;isthatthosealteriohesjudgedrightbytscevisible。Withoutatrast，allstudentsdoislearnthe“whole”，oftehisdoeshemfnovelproblemsinpowerfulwaysiure。Forexample，thenotionofanauxiliarytooldoesnothavemeaningwithoutaethingthatisnotanauxiliarytool，suchastheontologicallymuch“heavier”reifiedviewof“lightray”。
Learningabouttheantiquevieossibleforthelearouhemoderbecausethetwoaresimilar，butbecausetheyaredifferent。Althoughthetwoviewsareviewsofthesamethiive（tradoesnotderivefrwhatissame，butfrwhatisdifferent。Mysuggestionisthatlearningabouttheahenlearningaboutthemodernviewismoreducivetthenlearningaboutthemoderhisshouldbetrue，atleastiflearningismeasuredihelearner'sdistofcriticaldiffereweeahephenomeion（e。g。，fordmhtrays）。
&ualLearning
&uallearningasanacademicspecializatioablishedbyEleanibson。In1955shepublishedahighlyiiPsychologicalReview，“PerceptualLeario?”，coauthoredbyherhusband，JamesJ。Gibsohuedthattherearetwoschperceptuallearning。Agtotheeschool，wereceivescarce，impoverishedinformationfromthee，whichmustbeaddedtoandenriched。Agtothedifferentiationschool，wereuatiohatwehavetodifferentiateorselesequeoperceiveamouofindthedifferearemostcritirelatioals。J。J。GibsonandGibson（1955）demolearningtokhing（inthesenseofbei）isamatterhowitdiffersfrs（i。e。，beiodistherespewhichitdiffersfrs）。
TheecologicalapproachtoperceptuallearningedbyEleanibsonbelohedifferentiationsherbookwithAnneDicludedtheGestaltistsinthesamecamp，whereasthebehavioristsanditivistswerelistedutheories（E。J。Gibson＆Dick，2000）。